Table of ContentsDescribe how cross-sectional research design differs from longitudinal design. What do these two strategies have in common? Define attachment. Identify two infant behaviors that reflect whether a child is securely attached. What are the two important dimensions of parenting styles? How are these dimensions linked to an authoritarian parenting style? Identify three criticisms of Kohlberg's stage of moral reasoning. Provide your own example of each essay question. Describe how cross-sectional research design differs from longitudinal design. What do these two strategies have in common?A cross-sectional research design is a research method in which groups of participants of different chronological ages are observed and compared at one point in time; Longitudinal design is a research design in which the same participants are observed repeatedly, sometimes over several years. The difference between a cross-sectional research design and a longitudinal design is that the cross-sectional design uses participants at a certain age and the participants will move on to another age group; but the longitudinal design selects participants and maintains follow-up actions as the child grows. What both strategies have in common is that both methods must conduct research for participants over a long period of time, for example 10 years. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get Original Essay Set Attachment. Identify two infant behaviors that reflect whether a child is securely attached. Attachment is the emotional relationship between a child and their primary caretaker. That is, a child will tend to like his babysitter rather than his own parents, assuming that the parents hire a babysitter to take good care of the baby for a long period of time per day. A securely attached child shows some distress when his parents leave the room, because he will know that his parents will return soon; and they will seek closeness, comfort and contact during reunions, because this gives desire and harmony to the child. What are the two important dimensions of parenting styles? How are these dimensions linked to an authoritarian parenting style? The two important dimensions of parenting styles are demandingness and responsiveness. Demandingness refers to the parent's willingness to act as a socialization agent, and responsiveness refers to the parent's recognition of the child's individuality. Authoritative parenting demands that children conform to appropriate rules of behavior, and responsiveness keeps communication channels open to foster their children's ability to self-regulate. Identify and describe two of Erikson's stages of development. Use a childhood/adolescence stage and an adult stage. Give examples of each, using events from your life or the lives of people you know. Two of Erikson's developmental stages are infancy at age 2 and adolescence, from the teens to the 20s. During the period when he is very young, a child learns to show willpower and to do things for himself, or he doubts his abilities (autonomy, shame and doubt). For example, when I was a child, I had to learn to be dependent for a while when parents are not around for say 15 minutes, and I had to learn to use the toilet rather than usinglayers. a boy or girl must learn to refine their sense of self by testing out roles and then integrating them to form a unique identity, otherwise they no longer know who they are. For example, I learned to cooperate with others, to share my own opinion with others instead of doing everything myself. Identify three criticisms of Kohlberg's stage of moral reasoning. Give your own example of each. All three criticisms rely on three biases in Kohlberg's moral reasoning: age, gender, and culture. The age-related criticism is that Kohlberg only used boys as research subjects. In this way, Kohlberg's principles are not suitable for adults because it is recognized that adults' moral judgments are altered. For example, a child may think that killing a mortally defeated baby is morally wrong; but in the eyes of adults, killing this baby may be moral because they have relieved the baby's great pain. That is, children think differently from adults and therefore their moral reasoning should be different, which is not included in Kohlberg's moral reasoning. As for sex, Kohlberg had used boys; no girls were included. Since it is believed that women shape their moral decisions to maintain harmony in their social relationships while men refer more to fairness, men and women should have a different way of thinking and, therefore, a different moral reasoning. For example, men may think that abortion is not moral because it amounts to murder, while women may think that as the fetus grows inside her body, the mother should have absolute moral rights. to abortion. Thus, Kohlberg's moral reasoning is not good enough for both men and women. In terms of culture, different cultures have different moral standards. For example, traditional Chinese and Japanese people do not give respect to women and think it is morally correct; but in the United States, women are highly respected because their culture emphasizes gender equality. Kohlberg's research was conducted in a single country; his research is therefore not suitable for all cultures of the world. What is ageism? How can it affect older people? Ageism is a kind of disease that results in prejudice against older people, similar to racism and sexism in its negative stereotypes. Ageism causes the public to discriminate against older people, whose opportunities to do things are limited, and they are isolated and fixed with a negative self-image. Essay questions A child learns to roll a ball. Then the child is given an orange to eat. Discuss how Piaget would describe how this child learns to manipulate these round objects. Be sure to include the concepts of schema, assimilation, and accommodation. The concept of schema is a term used by Piaget to refer to the cognitive structures that develop as infants and young children learn to interpret the world and adapt to their environment. Assimilation is the process suggested by Piaget, whereby new cognitive elements integrate with old elements or are modified to fit more easily. Accommodation is the process of restructuring or changing the cognitive structure so that new information can fit into it more easily. When a child learns to roll a ball, the pattern of round objects he has learned is that any round object can roll. When the child then learns to eat an orange, according to Piaget's assimilation, the child has another schema according to which a round object is eatable..