The Kemalist understanding of secularism and secularism that has characterized the institutional and legal framework of Turkish society since the founding of the Republic is closely linked to the concept of modernity. A legacy of the Enlightenment, modernization theories hold that as reason supplants superstition, the influence of religion on society will diminish. If Kant argued that "the diffusion of knowledge and reason would mean […] 'keeping religion within the limits of reason'" (Benhabib, 2010: 452), Weber went further by asserting that modernization would mean " to completely do without religion in the world.” name of modern reason and an emancipated society” (ibid.). Such approaches played a decisive role in the Kemalist project of westernization of Turkish society. Historical context However, the notions of secular and modern did not emerge with Mustafa Kemal. The wave of modernization began long before he came to power. As early as the 19th century, Ottoman elites became aware of the need for reform to combat domestic nationalism and external imperial threats. The Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) therefore aimed to modernize (that is to say, westernize) and consolidate the empire. A centralized, bureaucratic system was established and efforts were made to instill a sense of Ottomanism among the empire's multi-ethnic subjects (Kuru, 2009b: 205-8). Secular courts, schools, and laws were formally established and coexisted with Islamic institutions. However, no explicit secular ideology was formulated and no contradiction was perceived in this cohabitation of the profane and the sacred (ibid.). The Sultan himself embodied this coexistence as a temporal and spiritual leader. Already in the 19th century there existed this idea according to which Islam and modernity, including Is...... middle of article ......3-983Kuru, AT, 2009a, “Affirmed secularism and Islamic challenge (1997-2008)”, in Secularism and state policies towards religion, Cambridge University Press, pp.161-201 Kuru, AT, 2009b, “Westernization and the emergence of an asserted secularism (1826-1997)”, in Secularism and state policies towards religion, Cambridge University Press, pp.202-235 Shambayati, H. and Kirdis, E., 2009, “In Pursuit of Contemporary Civilization”, Political Research Quarterly, 62, pp.767-780 Susen , S., 2011, Critical notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere, Sociological Analysis, 5(1), pp. 37-62Tröndle, D., 2007, “The relationship between Islam and democracy in Turkey”, International reports of the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 12Yilmaz, I., 2002, “Secular law and the emergence of law unofficial Turkish Islam”, Middle East Journal, 56(1), pp.. 113-131