Environmental Effects on Infant IntelligenceInfant cognitive development has fascinated researchers for decades. Phyllis LF Rippeyoung says that Jean Piaget, a well-known psychologist, suggested that cognitive skills arise from birth and arrive in stages during which the child acquires more knowledge and skills. Thanks to this, the child discovers the world (“Is it too late…” 242). An infant's environment greatly affects their cognitive abilities, and identifying environmental factors can help reduce the risk and symptoms of disabilities. Children can be very intelligent and the environmental influences around them can determine their future, depending on whether the influence is positive or negative. Even a seemingly unimportant environmental factor can dictate how cognition develops. Environmental effects can be many factors, such as factors related to chemicals and drugs, family interactions and stimulation, parental mental and marital status, nutrition, and health infants, as well as race. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”?Get the original essayResearchers Stephen A. Rauch and Bruce P. Lanphear wrote an article on the relationship between environment and disability among children. They investigated the extent to which environmental identification and control are relevant to disability prevention (193). The environment plays an important role in determining whether a child develops symptoms of a disability. Knowing how the environment changes infants' cognitive functioning is critical, especially because many disabilities are on the rise. These include asthma, premature birth, autism, ADHD, and obesity (197). Today, the prevalence of autism is increasing. It is one of the most debilitating diseases, starting in childhood (Rauch and Lanphear 200). Although researchers don't know much about this disease, they have discovered that one of its causes could be environmental; researchers introduced this theory due to the sudden rise in autism (Rauch and Lanphear 201). Suspected environmental hazards include mercury, lead, tobacco, organophosphate pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, manufactured chemicals, and mixtures of many chemicals (Rauch and Lanphear 201). ADHD is also becoming more common in children; it affects approximately one in ten children (Rauch and Lanphear 201). Suspected causes of its environmental causes are similar to those of autism. Rauch and Lanphear report: “Although the use of biomarkers has allowed scientists to link environmental exposures to disabilities in children, the long latency between exposure and disability makes it difficult to establish these links with certainty” ( 201). They then comment on what is being done to address these serious issues: “Yet these studies raise serious questions about the need to revise the existing regulatory framework, which essentially allows children to be exposed to suspected substances or chemicals until until there is definitive proof of their dangerousness. toxicity” (201). These risks are very problematic, and it is dangerous not to notice them at the last minute, when children are already starting to develop the disorders. According to Rauch and Lanphear, three possible methods of preventing disabilities exist: education, enforcement, and engineering. Educationis about teaching people about disabilities and factors that increase risk. The app uses laws that protect against bad behavior. Finally, engineering requires careful environmental management to reduce exposure as much as possible (203). Most environmental factors relate to the physical environment children find themselves in: their homes and neighborhoods. In poverty-stricken cities and towns, unsanitary atmosphere, toxic waste, and other types of pollution can all cause symptoms of disability (Rauch and Lanphear 195 and 198). Some homes expose infants to lead paint, which is associated with cognitive problems such as low IQ and ADHD (Rauch and Lanphear 197). Several other factors can influence infants' cognition. Rauch and Lanphear state: “…environmentally induced conditions that arise during childhood can worsen throughout a person's life and express themselves as chronic diseases in adulthood or later in life. advanced age” (197). This encompasses many types of disabilities, but also includes cognitive limitations. Rauch and Lanphear learned that many researchers are studying the effects of toxins on cognition. They say: “Black carbon has been associated with lower verbal and non-verbal intelligence and poorer memory performance…” More and more studies conclude that this is a common finding. Rauch and Lanphear continue: “These links between airborne toxins and cognitive performance are less established, but they fit a broader pattern of toxic exposures interfering with young children's brain development” (200). Even at the smallest level of exposure, toxins can be dangerous; it is harmful to the fetus and infants (Rauch and Lanphear 200). If mothers encounter these toxins and chemicals, they risk giving birth prematurely, which could affect the child's cognition. Researchers realize that mothers are not the only ones at risk. Everyone is at risk of exposure; no one is safe (Rauch and Lanphear 200). Medicines and chemicals can have a very negative effect on any human, but especially on infants due to their age and underdevelopment. Infants are more susceptible to the negative influences of drugs than adults. In fact, Ian Adatia and others agree with Rauch and Lanphear that the negative influences of drugs can cause temporary or permanent damage to the brain (253). Many types of drugs and chemicals, including cocaine, alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana, can not only damage the brain but also stunt the growth of infants. This is why doctors advise mothers not to consume drugs or activities during the gestation period. Authors Rina D. Eiden, Yvette Veira and Douglas A. Granger say: “Studies have shown that chronically high levels of cortisol can have deleterious effects on the brain, including deficits in memory, learning, state regulation and socio-emotional development. » (528). Even after the child is born, exposure to these elements can create risks for their physical, mental and emotional health. Infants may experience higher stress levels, higher cortisol reactivity, slower recovery time, and poor parenting (Eiden, Veira, and Granger 529). Parents are a great source of influence in an infant's life. If mothers use any type of drug, it will alter their reactions to the needs ofchildren. In studies, they have been shown to be less sensitive and less responsive when interacting with their infants (Eiden, Veira, and Granger 529). Family interaction is perhaps the most visible environmental agent that influences infants' cognition. Researchers Natasha J. Cabrera and others discuss the particular influences of parental interaction and relationships. They studied a sample of Latino infants with their parents to draw conclusions about infant cognition. Their experiment consisted of trained field staff visiting homes to observe interactions. They conducted a computer-assisted interview with the mothers, filmed mother-infant interactions, and assessed the infants' cognitive development (Cabrera et al. 1194). Videos filmed by field staff lasted between forty-five seconds and five and a half minutes, focusing on the mother teaching the infant a small task, such as tapping blocks together or turning the pages of a book (Cabrera et al. 1194). . Field staff gave the child's father a questionnaire to complete based on his relationship with the child. They didn't focus as much on the father's interactions. The authors concluded that the mental states and marital status of the parents directly affect the infant. Parental depression is “associated with more marital problems and higher levels of hostile or negative maternal and paternal parenting, such as insensitivity to infant cues and inadequate stimulation” (Cabrera et al. 1191-1192). The results of the experiments of Cabrera and others are proof of this. They examined interactions between mother and child, with results shown on infant cognitive test scores. They found that if the mother's mental state was healthy and positive, the child's test score was much higher (Cabrera et al. 1201). If the mental state was more depressed, the child's test scores were much lower (Cabrera et al. 1203). If each parent's mental health is not doing well, the parents' marriage may not go well. Ultimately, this will affect each parent's relationship with the infant. This is why good mental health and marital status are important; both have a very significant influence on the baby's cognitive development. A failing or unhealthy marital relationship between mother and father negatively affects the offspring and vice versa. The authors write: “…positive mother-father relationships in European American and Mexican-American families have a direct positive effect on child adjustment, whereas marital conflict predicts child maladjustment” (1192 ). In other words, if the parents' marriage goes well, the child will return the favor. This correlation is present not only in babies, but also in older children, adolescents and young adults, especially if the relationship between parents and their offspring is close. Researcher Rippeyoung gives a similar factor linked to infant cognition: family structure (“Is It Too Late…” 240). A mother faces a lot more pressure if she has never married or separated from the child's father. In this situation, the infant's cognitive abilities may be more limited than in the opposite situation (240). It is better if the baby's mother is married. Stress levels decrease, both in mother and child. The negative effects on the infant's cognitive functioning are less. The parents' individual relationships with the baby are important; this includes stimulation of the child. Researchers Joscha Kärtner,Heidi Keller and Relindis D. Yovsi analyzed the interactions of some mothers with their babies. They say that usually, "mothers respond intuitively to infants' signals within a short period of time, normally less than a second" (540). In every family it looks different. Nulliparous mothers generally worry more about their child than multiparous mothers. Whether mothers know it or not, this type of behavior promotes their child's growth. Stimulation is necessary for babies' brain development. When mothers respond, infants begin to “perceive themselves as causal agents whose behavior directly affects their social environment” (Kärtner et al. 540). Kärtner, Keller, and Yovsi then state: “This knowledge has fundamental implications for infants’ later cognitive and socio-emotional developmental processes” (540). Rippeyoung says some researchers dispute the negative consequences on cognition due to the greater number of siblings. (“Is it too late…” 240). The more children there are in a family, the more quickly they spread and burn out. Although this is true, researchers are not sure whether it specifically negates the growth of infant cognition (240). Rippeyoung argues that infant stimulation is key to cognitive growth. This is how infants learn language (“Is It Too Late…” 239). Much of the stimulation should come from parents, but stimulation from people outside the family is also important. Stimulating interactions may include, but are not limited to, reading, singing, telling stories, playing hide and seek, and tickling (239). Rippeyoung then mentions the concept of "direct conversation" which refers to the use of language in a manner of repetition, imitation, questioning, and reading (239). Parental interaction with the baby stimulates the child's growth. Without stimulation, there is no cognitive growth. As Rippeyoung says, stimulation is extremely important because without it, a child cannot learn language, and without language, the child cannot communicate with his parents, nor with the rest of the world ("Is It Too Late …” 239). The stimulation not only challenges them to learn to communicate, but also to use their senses to discover the vast world around them (239). Rippeyoung suggests that the mistake of mothers not stimulating their children stems from the mother's decision to return to the workforce (239). She doesn't spend enough time with the baby because she's away most of the time. Although members outside the family, such as babysitters and daycare providers, can stimulate the child through interaction, the specific stimulation of mothers is unique and incomparable. Stimulation is very beneficial for infants, but can sometimes have a negative effect on children. The mental state of the parents or guardians determines the type of stimulation the child receives (whether good or bad). Researchers Liat Tikotzky and Avi Sadeh examined the role of parental cognitions in infant sleep and suggested: “Parental cognitions regarding child behavior have been associated with child behavior. The influence of parental cognitions on child behavior is assumed to be mediated by how parents behave and react toward the child” (861). When a baby wakes during the night, parents may become irritated because they are exhausted from all the stress involved in parenting. Therefore, as parents attempt to soothe and return the baby to sleep, their state of mind towards theinfant could be inappropriate, giving him negative or worried feelings. Parents might also be disengaged from the task at hand (861). Tikotzky and Sadeh state: “…infant sleep problems [are] significantly correlated with maternal cognition related to difficulty setting limits, increased doubts about parental competence, and increased anger over infant demands” ( 861). An unhealthy attitude of the parent negatively affects the child. This type of stimulation does not benefit infants. In addition to stimulation, the infant's health also greatly influences his cognitive abilities. It is clear that malnutrition decreases cognitive functioning. Breastfeeding is part of a baby's environment that can significantly influence his or her future. The benefits of breastfeeding are a widely debated topic among researchers; some say it provides sufficient nutrition while others deny this. Emerging research suggests that breastfeeding positively influences infant cognition, although the extent of this phenomenon is not entirely certain. Seaneen Sloan, Moira Stewart, and Laura Dunne state, “Cognitive development is known to depend on a wide variety of genetic, environmental, and socioeconomic factors” (107). The authors conclude that the results “are unclear whether differences in cognitive performance reflect a direct nutritional benefit from breast milk” (Sloan, Stewart, and Dunne 107). While this is true, breastfeeding can certainly have some positive sides, but this research indicates that the positive results may not manifest unless combined with other factors, such as a certain duration of breastfeeding and good parenting behaviors (Sloan, Stewart, and Dunne 108). Rippeyoung also studied the effects of breast milk on infants and young children. She says that breastfeeding provides an explanation for deficits in infants' cognitive development ("Can Breastfeeding Solve Inequality? The Relative Mediating Impact of Breastfeeding and Home Environment on Poverty Gaps in Canadian Child Cognitive Skills" 66). She says: “Research has consistently demonstrated a positive effect of breastfeeding on children's health outcomes, as evidenced by its promotion by Health Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada and the World Health Organization” (69). She then argues that breastfeeding helps children achieve higher IQ scores (69). Researchers have many differing opinions on this topic. Some say that milk itself does not determine a child's IQ, but that the mother's genetics does. Both sides of this argument have very good reasoning. Researchers have conducted many studies, but many of them do not take into account the mother's IQ. Sloan's study also didn't take the mother's IQ into account, but it did take into account her education level. A very famous study takes into account the mother's IQ. The results of this study show that breastfeeding infants was not the primary cause of high IQ, but rather the inheritance of the mother's high IQ. Racial differentiation is another factor that has to do with infants' cognitions. Since at least 1917, the test scores of blacks have been consistently and significantly lower than those of whites. Rippeyoung studied differentiation and its beginnings, starting in childhood. She used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) to “assess whether a racial gap exists in cognitive skills, measured by items such as exploration, babbling, solving early.